Influence of schooling and age on cognitive performance in healthy older adults

Few studies have examined the influence of a low level of schooling on age-related cognitive decline in countries with wide social and economic inequalities by using the Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTAB). The aim of the present study was to assess the influence of schooling on age-related cognitive decline using unbiased cognitive tests. CANTAB allows cognitive assessment across cultures and education levels with reduced interference of the examiner during data acquisition. Using two-way ANOVA, we assessed the influences of age and education on test scores of old adults (61–84 years of age). CANTAB tests included: Visual Sustained Attention, Reaction Time, Spatial Working Memory, Learning and Episodic Memory. All subjects had a minimum visual acuity of 20/30 (Snellen Test), no previous or current history of traumatic brain/head trauma, stroke, language impairment, chronic alcoholism, neurological diseases, memory problems or depressive symptoms, and normal scores on the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). Subjects were grouped according to education level (1 to 7 and ≥8 years of schooling) and age (60–69 and ≥70 years). Low schooling level was associated with significantly lower performance on visual sustained attention, learning and episodic memory, reaction time, and spatial working memory. Although reaction time was influenced by age, no significant results on post hoc analysis were detected. Our findings showed a significantly worse cognitive performance in volunteers with lower levels of schooling and suggested that formal education in early life must be included in the preventive public health agenda. In addition, we suggest that CANTAB may be useful to detect subtle cognitive changes in healthy aging.

Microglia and neurons in the hippocampus of migratory sandpipers

The semipalmated sandpiper Calidris pusilla and the spotted sandpiper Actitis macularia are long- and short-distance migrants, respectively. C. pusilla breeds in the sub-arctic and mid-arctic tundra of Canada and Alaska and winters on the north and east coasts of South America. A. macularia breeds in a broad distribution across most of North America from the treeline to the southern United States. It winters in the southern United States, and Central and South America. The autumn migration route of C. pusilla includes a non-stop flight over the Atlantic Ocean, whereas autumn route of A. macularia is largely over land. Because of this difference in their migratory paths and the visuo-spatial recognition tasks involved, we hypothesized that hippocampal volume and neuronal and glial numbers would differ between these two species. A. macularia did not differ from C. pusilla in the total number of hippocampal neurons, but the species had a larger hippocampal formation and more hippocampal microglia. It remains to be investigated whether these differences indicate interspecies differences or neural specializations associated with different strategies of orientation and navigation.

Mecanismos de degeneración secundaria en el sistema nervioso central durante los trastornos neuronales agudos y el daño en la sustancia blanca / Mechanisms of secondary degeneration in th central nervous system during aucte neural disorders and white matter damage

Introducción. Las enfermedades neurodegenerativas, incluyendo los accidentes cerebrovasculares, los traumatismos cerebrales o las lesiones de la médula espinal, tienen una elevada incidencia en todo el mundo. Se pueden identificar dos patrones lesivos claros tras estos episodios destructivos: un daño primario, consecuencia temprana del episodio patológico primario, y una degeneración neuronal secundaria (DNS), un grupo de episodios patológicos que inducen la degeneración tardía en células que no están afectadas por el daño primario o que sólo lo están parcialmente. Este mecanismo patológico es un importante factor que contribuye a los déficit funcionales y es el objetivo de enfoques terapéuticos. Hay varios factores implicados en la etiología de la DNS, incluyendo la excitotoxicidad, la inflamación y el estrés oxidativo. Objetivo. Revisar los principales mecanismos que subyacen en la DNS tras los trastornos neuronales agudos. Desarrollo. Se tratan los hallazgos más recientes sobre el proceso desencadenante de la DNS, así como su importancia para la degeneración de las vías de la sustancia blanca. Conclusiones. La caracterización de los episodios que subyacen en la DNS es de gran importancia para el desarrollo de nuevos enfoques terapéuticos suficientemente eficaces para disminuir los déficit funcionales y contribuir a la mejora de la calidad de vida de quienes padecen enfermedades neurológicas. Para una mejor eficacia neuroprotectora de la sustancia gris y de la sustancia blanca, estos enfoques terapéuticos deben validarse en modelos experimentales, tanto de enfermedades cerebrales como de la médula espinal, que simulen eficazmente los trastornos neuronales (AU)

Introduction. Acute neurodegenerative diseases, including stroke and traumatic brain and spinal cord injury, possess an elevated worldwide incidence. Two distinct lesive patterns can be identified after these destructive events: primary damage, an early consequence of the primary pathological event, and secondary neural degeneration (SND), a group of pathological events inducing late degeneration in cells not or even only partially affected by the primary damage. This pathological mechanism is an important contributing factor for functional deficits and target for therapeutic approaches. Several factors are involved on the SND etiology, including excitotoxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Aim. To review the main mechanisms underlying the SND occurring after acute neural disorders. Development. The more recent findings about the eliciting processes of SND degeneration are discussed, as well as their significance to degeneration of white matter tracts. Conclusions. The characterization of the events underlying SND is of fundamental importance for the development of new therapeutic approaches effective enough to decrease the functional deficits, contributing to the improvement of the quality of life of people suffering neurological diseases. These therapeutic approaches must be validated in experimental models of both brain and spinal cord diseases, which effectively simulate human neural disorders protecting both gray and white matters for a better neuroprotective efficacy (AU)